Open Access
Table II
Diagnostic modalities, therapeutic interventions, and outcomes in reported cases of orofacial rhinosporidiosis.
| Author / year | Imaging (type) | Histopathology | Surgical intervention | Medical treatment | Recurrence | Follow-up (months) | Complications | Conclusion |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Doddawad et al. (2022) [27] | No imaging reported | Yes, sporangia with endospores in biopsy | Laser-assisted endoscopic excision | Dapsone for recurrence prevention | No | 12 | None | Laser-assisted excision with Dapsone is an effective approach to prevent recurrence; surgery should be performed in combination with post-op instructions. |
| Rameshkumar et al. (2015) [18] | No imaging reported | Yes, sporangia with endospores in biopsy | Incisional wedge biopsy (intra-oral buccal approach) | None (Dapsone used in other cases) | Not reported | Not reported | Not reported | Complete excision with cauterization is the treatment of choice; Dapsone is promising for preventing recurrence. |
| Santosh et al. (2022) [2] | Sialography (right parotid gland) | Yes, sporangia with endospores in biopsy | Electrocauterization at base of lesion | None | No | 36 months | None | Surgical excision with electrocauterization is effective; no recurrence at 3 years |
| Swain SK (2025) [3] | Contrast-enhanced CT scan (face and neck) | Yes, sporangia with endospores in biopsy | Complete excision with cauterization | Dapsone (100mg daily) | No | 3 months | No complications reported | Successful surgical excision with Dapsone; no recurrence after 3 years follow-up |
| Kazi AZ et al. (2019) [13] | CT scan (maxillary sinus, facial) | Yes, sporangia with endospores in biopsy | Excisional biopsy and curettage of maxillary sinus | Dapsone (100mg/day for 6 months) | No | 24 months | None reported | Successful surgical excision with Dapsone therapy; no recurrence after 2 years |
| Tong TK et al. (2023) [4] | CT scan (paranasal sinuses) | Yes, thick-walled sporangia with endospores | Endoscopic excision, debridement of maxillary sinus | Dapsone (100mg daily for 6 months) | Yes, after 1 year | 24 months | None reported | Surgical excision and Dapsone therapy are effective, but recurrence is common and requires long-term follow-up. |
| Babu S et al. (2012) [32] | CT scan (maxillary sinuses, nasal cavity) | Yes, sporangia with daughter spores in biopsy | Functional endoscopic sinus surgery, excision of nasopharyngeal mass | None | Yes, after 1 year | 12 months | None | Surgical excision with dapsone therapy showed partial success; recurrence is common. |
| Arias AF et al. (2020) [6] | CT scan (head) | Yes, sporangia with endospores in biopsy | Endoscopic excision, cauterization | None, only post-operative monitoring | No | 6 months | No complications | Endoscopic excision was successful; no recurrence after 6 months of follow-up. |
| Ghosh R et al. (2021) [33] | Chest X-ray, CT scan (lung) | Yes, sporangia with endospores in biopsy | Not performed due to disseminated disease; multi-drug therapy started | Dapsone (100 mg/day), later switched to liposomal amphotericin B, ketoconazole, cycloserine | No recurrence after therapy | 6 months | Dapsone-induced autoimmune hemolytic anemia (resolved after stopping Dapsone) | Multi-drug therapy with liposomal amphotericin B and other agents was effective in resolving most lesions, though dapsone caused temporary hemolytic anemia. |
| Dey AK et al. (2016) [19] | CT scan (sinuses, orbit) | Yes, sporangia with varying sizes of spores | Wide excision of nasolacrimal duct/orbital lesion, electrocauterization | Dapsone (post-op) | No | 6 months | No complications | Endoscopic excision with cauterization was effective; Dapsone therapy for recurrence prevention. |
| Shah R (2016) [34] | X-ray, CT scan (sinus, nasal cavity) | Sporangia with endospores in biopsy | Caldwell-Luc operation, endoscopic sinus surgery, wide excision | Dapsone (post-op) | No | 6 months | No complications reported | Wide excision and dapsone therapy were effective; no recurrence at 6 months follow-up. |
| Ali GM et al. (2020) [29] | CT scan (sinus and nasal) | Sporangia with endospores | Endoscopic excision with cauterization | Dapsone (previous therapy) | Yes, 1 year later | 12 months | None | Endoscopic excision with cauterization was effective but recurrence occurred after 1 year; Dapsone therapy was insufficient to prevent relapse. |
| Bhargava S et al. (2012) [4] | CT scan, X-ray (nasal sinuses) | Yes, sporangia with endospores, PAS-positive | Endoscopic excision, electrocoagulation | None (no specific antifungal) | No | 12 months | None | Surgical excision combined with cauterization was effective, and no recurrence after 12 months. |
| Putthia H et al. (2018) [10] | None (clinical diagnosis) | Yes, sporangia with endospores | Surgical excision and debridement of affected tissue | None (monitoring) | No | 3 months | No | Surgical excision was successful, and no recurrence after 3 months. No need for further antifungal treatment. |
| Chandran A et al. (2020) [35] | Nasal endoscopy, clinical diagnosis) | Yes, sporangia with endospores in biopsy | Complete excision of the mass, bipolar cauterization of the base | None | No | 12 months | Dysphagia | Complete excision and cauterization were effective, and no recurrence after 1 year. |
| Devaraja K et al. (2018) [36] | CT scan, X-ray (sinuses, larynx) | Sporangia with endospores | Excision of laryngeal lesion, nasal, and oropharyngeal lesions, radiofrequency Coblation | Dapsone (100 mg/day for 6 months) | No | 12 months | No complications reported | Surgical excision with dapsone therapy was effective; no recurrence after 1 year. |
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